In the late Nineteenth century, the first direct calorimeter, the Atwater-Rosa calorimeter, was made. Understanding of cellular metabolism advanced in the Eighteenth century when Lavoisier and Laplace described the measurement of heat exchange ( 4). Energy from their combination is used to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, and results in the by-products carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H 2O) ( 1, 3). The continuous, formation of energy requires a constant supply of substrates: primarily glucose, fatty acids, and oxygen (O 2). Energy production is tightly controlled by the organism and is required to sustain cellular homeostasis, organ function, and growth ( 1– 3). Living organisms are dependent on the constant expenditure of energy-rich adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) for survival.
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